Frederick II Negotiates Jerusalem's Return
An excommunicated emperor wins back the Holy City through diplomacy, not battle, and is criticized by both sides for it
Quick facts
- Negotiators
- Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II and Sultan al-Kamil of Egypt
- Treaty signed
- 18 February 1229 (Treaty of Jaffa)
- Key term
- Jerusalem returned to Christian rule; Temple Mount stays under Muslim authority
- Jerusalem held until
- 1244
What happened
Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II had repeatedly delayed his promised crusade, prompting Pope Gregory IX to excommunicate him in September 1227. Undeterred, Frederick sailed anyway and landed at Acre in September 1228, still excommunicate, which meant the Templars and Hospitallers felt they could not officially serve under him and had to be given nominally separate commanders. Rather than fight, Frederick negotiated directly with the Egyptian sultan al-Kamil. On 18 February 1229 the two signed the Treaty of Jaffa, under which Jerusalem was returned to Christian control, though the Temple Mount remained under Muslim religious authority and resident Muslims retained the right to visit on pilgrimage. No new fortifications or construction were permitted at the holy sites. In exchange, al-Kamil received a ten-year truce and Frederick's promise to defend him against all enemies, including fellow Christians. Al-Kamil faced criticism from Muslims across the region for the concession, even as Frederick's own excommunication meant his triumph brought him no credit from the Church that had sent him.
Why it matters
The Sixth Crusade achieved by treaty what five previous armed crusades had failed to accomplish by force, but Jerusalem's return proved temporary: the city fell again in 1244, and no crusader force would ever recapture it after that.
How we know
The treaty's specific terms and the criticism al-Kamil received from fellow Muslim rulers are recorded in the World History Encyclopedia's detailed account of the negotiations and their aftermath.
Sources
- World History Encyclopedia. Sixth Crusade · Reputable sourceworldhistory.org · The domain "worldhistory.org" is on our Reputable source registry. · Link is live and its text matches the event's key terms (Jul 2026)
- World History Encyclopedia. Sixth Crusade · Reputable sourceworldhistory.org · The domain "worldhistory.org" is on our Reputable source registry. · Link is live and its text matches the event's key terms (Jul 2026)
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